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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">J Bras Pneumol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">jbpneu</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Jornal Brasileiro de Pneumologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">J. bras. pneumol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">1806-3713</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1806-3756</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Pneumologia e Tisiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">d4qsR4y6WqF7rmLZ6Fm9Lgn</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S1806-37132015000500467</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S1806-37132015000000035</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Inhalation therapy in mechanical ventilation</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Maccari</surname>
            <given-names>Ju&#231;ara Gasparetto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Teixeira</surname>
            <given-names>Cassiano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gazzana</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Basso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Savi</surname>
            <given-names>Augusto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dexheimer-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Felippe Leopoldo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Knorst</surname>
            <given-names>Marli Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Unidade de Terapia Intensiva Adulto, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre (RS) Brasil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Pneumologia, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre (RS) Brasil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Pneumologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Pneumologia, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre (RS) Brasil</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized"/>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Pneumol&#243;gicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre (RS) Brasil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspondence to: Cassiano Teixeira. Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 910, CEP 90035-001, Porto Alegre (RS) Brasil. Tel.: 55 51 3314-3387. E-mail: <email>cassiano.rush@gmail.com</email>
					</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <season>Sep-Oct</season>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>41</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>467</fpage>
      <lpage>472</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Patients with obstructive lung disease often require ventilatory support via invasive or noninvasive mechanical ventilation, depending on the severity of the exacerbation. The use of inhaled bronchodilators can significantly reduce airway resistance, contributing to the improvement of respiratory mechanics and patient-ventilator synchrony. Although various studies have been published on this topic, little is known about the effectiveness of the bronchodilators routinely prescribed for patients on mechanical ventilation or about the deposition of those drugs throughout the lungs. The inhaled bronchodilators most commonly used in ICUs are beta adrenergic agonists and anticholinergics. Various factors might influence the effect of bronchodilators, including ventilation mode, position of the spacer in the circuit, tube size, formulation, drug dose, severity of the disease, and patient-ventilator synchrony. Knowledge of the pharmacological properties of bronchodilators and the appropriate techniques for their administration is fundamental to optimizing the treatment of these patients.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Bronchial hyperreactivity</kwd>
        <kwd>Drug delivery systems</kwd>
        <kwd>Respiration, artificial</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="38"/>
        <page-count count="6"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>INTRODUCTION</title>
      <p>Patients with obstructive lung disease, such as COPD and bronchial asthma, often require ventilatory support via invasive mechanical ventilation (MV) or noninvasive MV (NIMV), depending on the severity of the exacerbation. Many such patients have increased airway resistance and, consequently, airway obstruction, which results in increased positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and, consequently, auto-PEEP (also known as dynamic hyperinflation). Auto-PEEP results in increased respiratory effort, contributing to muscle fatigue in such patients.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>)</sup> Therefore, the use of positive pressure MV can improve respiratory function, improving the outcomes of decompensated patients.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>)</sup> The use of inhaled bronchodilators can significantly reduce airway resistance, contributing to the improvement of respiratory mechanics and patient-ventilator synchrony. </p>
      <p>The major advantages of using inhalation therapy in such patients are selective treatment of the lungs and high drug concentrations in the airways. In addition, inhaled drugs have a more rapid onset of action and fewer systemic adverse effects than do drugs administered by other routes. However, correct inhaler technique and regular medication use are needed in order to improve drug efficacy, given that inhaled drugs have shorter half-lives. </p>
      <p>In a recently published study, physician practices regarding the prescription of inhaled drugs were analyzed in 70 countries.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>)</sup> Of the 854 intensivists whose responses were analyzed, 99% reported prescribing aerosol therapy to patients on MV, including those on NIMV, and 43% exclusively used nebulizers. During nebulization, ventilator settings were never changed by 77% of the respondents; in addition, 87% stated that ultrasonic nebulizers were superior to jet nebulizers. The aforementioned study provides evidence of the heterogeneity in prescribing inhaled drugs, showing that current scientific knowledge is poorly applied. </p>
      <p>Although various studies have been published on this topic, little is known about the efficacy of the bronchodilators routinely prescribed for patients on MV or about the deposition of those drugs throughout the lungs. The use of inhaled drugs in patients requiring NIMV poses an even greater challenge. </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>INHALATION THERAPY DURING MV</title>
      <p>The use of inhaled drugs has the advantage of allowing selective treatment of the lungs by delivering high drug concentrations to the airways, having a rapid onset of action and few systemic adverse effects. It is believed that the beneficial effects of inhaled drugs are smaller in patients on MV than in those breathing spontaneously. In an early study, only 2.9% of the administered dose reached the distal airway (vs. 11.9% when the dose was administered without an artificial airway)<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>)</sup>; this might be due to a substantial drug loss caused by the turbulent flow produced by the respiratory prosthesis. However, precautions observed at the time of drug administration can improve lung drug deposition,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>)</sup> as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Chart 1</xref>. </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Chart 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Strategies to improve lung drug deposition during mechanical ventilation.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>psi: pound-force per square inch. aIn patients with obstructive lung disease, a tidal volume &gt; 500 mL can result in auto-PEEP (dynamic hyperinflation). In such cases, respiratory mechanics should be monitored, tidal volume being controlled in order to avoid barotrauma.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>With regard to aerosol delivery devices, it was initially believed that lung drug deposition was better with the use of metered dose inhalers (MDIs) than with the use of conventional nebulizers.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>)</sup> However, when the two types of devices are used correctly, the results are similar.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>)</sup> In general, MDIs are more economical and pose a lower risk of nosocomial pneumonia.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>)</sup> Clinical studies have shown that nebulizers and MDIs have similar effects on lung function, both types of devices resulting in equivalent changes in FEV<sub>1</sub>.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>Bronchodilators, corticosteroids, antibiotics, prostaglandins, nitric oxide, anticoagulants, and heliox can be administered via inhalation. However, inhalation is most commonly used for bronchodilator administration, improving ventilatory parameters and patient-ventilator synchrony in cases of airway constriction.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>)</sup> Bronchodilators relax airway smooth muscles, reversing airway obstruction and preventing bronchoconstriction.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> Ventilator-dependent patients, COPD patients, and asthma patients routinely receive treatment with inhaled bronchodilators. </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>PHARMACOLOGICAL AGENTS</title>
      <p>The inhaled bronchodilators that are most commonly used in the ICU are beta adrenergic agonists and anticholinergics.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>)</sup> Beta adrenergic agonists can also be administered intravenously, subcutaneously, or orally; however, inhalation is the preferred route of administration because of direct lung delivery, need for a lower dose, rapid onset of action, and reduced systemic absorption, thus reducing adverse effects.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>)</sup> One study evaluated the emergency room treatment of patients with asthma and showed that there is no evidence to support the use of intravenous &#946;<sub>2</sub> agonists, even in patients refractory to inhaled &#946;<sub>2</sub> agonists.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>)</sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Chart 2</xref> shows the inhaled bronchodilators that are most commonly used in the ICU, including doses and pharmacological characteristics such as onset of action, time to peak effect, and duration of action. </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Chart 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Doses and duration of action of the inhaled bronchodilators most commonly administered to patients on mechanical ventilation.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>CLINICAL USE OF BRONCHODILATORS</title>
      <p>In patients with COPD, long-acting &#946;<sub>2</sub> agonists and inhaled corticosteroids are used in order to relieve symptoms, improve quality of life, improve lung function, and prevent decompensation.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>)</sup> In patients with exacerbation of COPD or severe asthma, emergency bronchodilator treatment is required. The drug of choice is a short-acting &#946;<sub>2</sub> agonist (e.g., albuterol), because short-acting &#946;<sub>2</sub> agonists have a more rapid onset of action and a greater bronchodilator effect and because they can be repeated at short intervals during bronchospasm attacks.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> The need for high doses in critically ill patients has led to studies of continuous nebulization in selected patients. However, the results are conflicting, showing no evidence that this strategy is beneficial.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>In general, the severity of asthma or COPD exacerbation can be best evaluated by the severity of the attack and the bronchodilator response than by previous lung function. </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE INHALED DRUG DELIVERY DURING MV</title>
      <p>In patients on MV, bronchodilators can be delivered by jet nebulizers, ultrasonic nebulizers, or MDIs. In the case of jet nebulizers, compressed gas generates aerosol particles that are delivered with tidal volume. This necessarily increases the tidal volume delivered in each inspiratory cycle. Ultrasonic nebulizers are available for certain ventilators. They deliver medicine by using high-frequency vibrations to convert the liquid into an aerosol and do not increase patient tidal volume during inhalation. </p>
      <p>To date, no clinical differences have been found between jet and ultrasonic nebulizers.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> The disadvantages of conventional nebulizers include the need for an external flow source independent of the ventilator, the need to install the equipment, and the need for thorough cleaning. Ultrasonic nebulizers can provide a higher nebulization rate in a shorter period of time; however, their availability is limited by high cost.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>Studies investigating clinical differences between nebulizers and MDIs have yielded inconsistent results. The efficacy of MDI-delivered drugs depends particularly on the position of the tube in the ventilator circuit. In the case of MDI-delivered bronchodilators, a spacer is essential and can increase aerosol deposition in the airways by four to six times.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>)</sup> A variety of spacers are available. It is currently believed that an MDI with a spacer is as effective as a nebulizer, being more practical and quicker to administer and requiring no disconnection from the ventilator circuit after each dose. </p>
      <p>Many other factors influence aerosol deposition in the lower airways, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Chart 3</xref>. Such factors include drug-related properties (including physical and chemical properties), the characteristics of the aerosol generator, the position of the aerosol generator in the ventilator circuit, ventilator settings, ventilation modes, heating and humidification of the inhaled air, the characteristics of the endotracheal tube, the anatomy of the airways, and the presence of respiratory secretions.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Chart 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Factors influencing aerosol deposition in the airways during mechanical ventilation.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Even in ventilator-dependent patients, bronchodilators should preferentially be administered with the head of the bed elevated, given that the sitting position improves drug delivery.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>)</sup> Heating and humidification of the inhaled air are required during ventilatory support in order to reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. However, they increase particle impaction in the ventilator circuit, reducing aerosol deposition in the more distal airways by as much as 40%.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>The aerosol generator should be placed at a distance of 20-30 cm from the endotracheal tube, between the tube and the Y-piece of the ventilator circuit,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>)</sup> as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>. This is due to the fact that the inspiratory limb of the ventilator circuit acts as an aerosol reservoir during exhalation.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>)</sup> Synchronization of actuation with the beginning of inhalation increases lung drug deposition by as much as 30% when compared with failure to synchronize actuations with inhalation. A delay of 1-1.5 s between actuation and inhalation can reduce the efficacy of drug delivery.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>The aerosol generator should be placed at a distance of 20-30 cm from the endotracheal tube, between the tube and the Y-piece of the ventilator circuit.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Ventilator settings also play an important role in inhaled drug delivery. A tidal volume of at least 500 mL,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>)</sup> increased inspiratory time, and low inspiratory flow (30-50 L/min) are recommended in order to optimize lung drug deposition.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>)</sup> Attention should be paid to the adverse effects of high (&gt; 500 mL) tidal volume in patients with obstructive lung disease, given that it can worsen dynamic hyperinflation or cause barotrauma. According to the authors of an in vitro study, drug delivery by nebulizers can vary depending on the ventilation mode (i.e., pressure-controlled ventilation or volume-controlled ventilation). <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>)</sup> However, there have been no clinical studies showing the beneficial effects of any particular ventilation mode on inhaled drug delivery.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>High and turbulent flows can increase particle impaction, increasing particle deposition in the proximal airways.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup> The density of the inhaled gas also influences drug delivery. Inhalation of a less dense gas, such as a 70/30 mixture of helium and oxygen, makes airflow less turbulent and more laminar, facilitating inhaled drug delivery.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>BRONCHODILATOR RESPONSE DURING MV</title>
      <p>Given that it is impossible to assess FEV<sub>1</sub> and FVC in patients on MV, treatment response is evaluated on the basis of respiratory mechanics parameters. Treatment is aimed at reducing inspiratory airway resistance. Reduced inspiratory airway resistance can be confirmed by a reduction in peak pressure or in the difference between peak and plateau pressures during an inspiratory pause. A reduction of more than 10% in the variation in resistance indicates a significant bronchodilator response.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> It is important to analyze pre- and post-bronchodilator flow curves, which can show a reduction in intrinsic PEEP, i.e., a reduction in auto-PEEP.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>BRONCHODILATOR THERAPY DURING NIMV</title>
      <p>Given the scientific evidence for the use of NIMV in patients with COPD or asthma, it is necessary to study bronchodilator administration during NIMV. Currently, in daily practice, for bronchodilator administration in patients on NIMV, the mask is removed and the drug is delivered as usual (i.e., by a nebulizer or MDI), or the device is connected to the mask or the ventilator circuit. There is currently no commercially available system designed specifically for inhalation therapy during NIMV.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>As is the case with invasive MV, the effect of the inhaled drug during NIMV depends on the pharmacological properties of the drug and on lung drug deposition. For better drug delivery, aerosol particles must be small enough to penetrate through the upper airways but large enough to avoid being eliminated by the expiratory flow. Devices that produce aerosols with mass of less than 2 &#181;m are more efficient for pulmonary deposition during NIMV.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>In NIMV-dependent patients, an MDI with a spacer was found to be four to six times more efficient for bronchodilator administration than an MDI without a spacer.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup> Nava et al.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>)</sup> evaluated MDI-delivered albuterol in clinically stable COPD patients who were on NIMV and in those who were not. The authors found a significant increase in FEV<sub>1</sub> after albuterol administration, regardless of the method used.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>Aerosol deposition in the mask and nasal cavity significantly reduces lung drug deposition,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>)</sup> possibly reducing drug efficacy. However, a mask is required for ventilatory support in some patients with bronchospasm, in whom it can avoid intubation.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>)</sup> For increased efficacy, the mask must be well secured. Leaks can significantly reduce drug delivery.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>Ventilators specifically designed for NIMV have a single-limb circuit, and exhalation valve position can influence the efficiency of aerosol delivery; this does not occur when an MDI is used. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup> Branconnier &amp; Hess<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>)</sup> used an experimental model in which the leak port was incorporated either into the circuit or into the mask in order to determine whether albuterol delivered during NIMV was affected by the use of a nebulizer or an MDI. The authors found that, with the nebulizer, significantly more albuterol was delivered when the leak port was in the circuit than when it was in the mask.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>)</sup> Calvert et al.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref><sup>)</sup> reported that albuterol delivery was more efficient when the nebulizer was placed between the exhalation port and the ventilator for NIMV than when the nebulizer was placed between the exhalation port and the mask. In contrast, Abdelrahim et al.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>)</sup> observed higher aerosol deposition when the nebulizer was placed between the exhalation port and the mask. The divergent results show that this is a controversial issue and indicate the need for further studies. </p>
      <p>The position of the nebulizer in relation to the mask also plays an important role in aerosol deposition, front-loaded nebulizers being more efficient than bottom-loaded nebulizers in delivering drug to the patient.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>)</sup> An in vitro study investigating the effect of ventilator settings and nebulizer position on albuterol delivery during NIMV showed that albuterol delivery varied significantly depending on nebulizer position in the ventilator circuit, inspiratory/expiratory pressure levels, and respiratory rate. Albuterol delivery was greatest (with as much as 25% of the nominal dose being delivered) when the nebulizer was placed between the mask and the circuit, when inspiratory pressure was highest (20 cmH<sub>2</sub>O), and when expiratory pressure was lowest (5 cmH<sub>2</sub>O).<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      <p>The extent of lung disease and the ability of patients to tolerate the mask also play a decisive role in the success of treatment with NIMV and inhalation therapy. Patient-ventilator synchrony improves lung drug deposition. A delay of 1-1.5 s between device actuation and the beginning of inhalation can significantly reduce the efficiency of drug delivery.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>FINAL CONSIDERATIONS</title>
      <p>Many patients with COPD require ventilatory support via invasive MV or NIMV. Inhaled drug delivery is complex in this context. Multiple factors influence the efficacy of inhaled bronchodilators administered during MV. For improved drug efficacy, the appropriate dose and formulation should be prescribed. Measures that can improve the efficacy of bronchodilators include the use of a spacer, patient-ventilator synchrony, an appropriate interval between doses, and adjustment of the ventilator settings during administration. </p>
      <p>Despite the recommendations for inhaled drug delivery, few such interventions are implemented in daily clinical practice. Knowledge of the factors influencing lung drug deposition is fundamental to optimizing the treatment of these patients.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <p>Financial support: None</p>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo De Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Terapia inalat&#243;ria em ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia: Cassiano Teixeira. Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 910, CEP 90035-001, Porto Alegre (RS) Brasil. Tel.: 55 51 3314-3387. E-mail: <email>cassiano.rush@gmail.com</email>
					</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <p>Pacientes com doen&#231;as pulmonares obstrutivas frequentemente necessitam de suporte ventilat&#243;rio atrav&#233;s de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica invasiva ou n&#227;o invasiva, dependendo da gravidade da exacerba&#231;&#227;o. O uso de broncodilatadores inalat&#243;rios pode reduzir significativamente a resist&#234;ncia das vias a&#233;reas, contribuindo para a melhora da mec&#226;nica respirat&#243;ria e da sincronia do paciente com o respirador. Apesar dos diversos estudos publicados, pouco se conhece sobre a efic&#225;cia dos broncodilatadores rotineiramente prescritos para pacientes em ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica ou sobre sua distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Os agonistas beta-adren&#233;rgicos e as drogas anticolin&#233;rgicas s&#227;o os broncodilatadores inalat&#243;rios mais usados em UTIs. Muitos fatores podem influenciar no efeito das drogas broncodilatadoras, entre eles o modo ventilat&#243;rio, a posi&#231;&#227;o do espa&#231;ador no circuito, o tamanho do tubo, a formula&#231;&#227;o/dose da droga, a gravidade da doen&#231;a e a sincronia do paciente. O conhecimento das propriedades farmacol&#243;gicas das drogas broncodilatadoras e das t&#233;cnicas adequadas para sua administra&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o fundamentais para otimizar o tratamento desses pacientes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Hiper-reatividade br&#244;nquica</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistemas de libera&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos</kwd>
        <kwd>Respira&#231;&#227;o artificial</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>INTRODU&#199;&#195;O</title>
        <p>Pacientes com doen&#231;as pulmonares obstrutivas, como DPOC e asma br&#244;nquica, frequentemente necessitam de suporte ventilat&#243;rio com ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica (VM) invasiva ou n&#227;o invasiva (VNI), dependendo da gravidade da exacerba&#231;&#227;o. Muitos desses pacientes apresentam aumento da resist&#234;ncia das vias a&#233;reas, com consequente obstru&#231;&#227;o ao fluxo expirat&#243;rio, o que resulta em um aumento da <italic>positive end-expiratory pressure</italic> (PEEP, press&#227;o expirat&#243;ria final positiva), gerando auto-PEEP, fen&#244;meno tamb&#233;m conhecido como hiperinsufla&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica. A presen&#231;a de auto-PEEP gera um aumento do esfor&#231;o ventilat&#243;rio, contribuindo para a fadiga muscular nesses pacientes.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>)</sup> Desta maneira, o uso da VM com press&#227;o positiva pode aliviar a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventilat&#243;ria, melhorando o desfecho nos pacientes descompensados. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>)</sup> O uso de broncodilatadores inalat&#243;rios pode reduzir significativamente a resist&#234;ncia das vias a&#233;reas, contribuindo para a melhora da mec&#226;nica respirat&#243;ria e da sincronia do paciente com o respirador.</p>
        <p>O tratamento seletivo pulmonar e a elevada concentra&#231;&#227;o de medica&#231;&#227;o nas vias a&#233;reas s&#227;o vantagens importantes do uso da terapia inalat&#243;ria nesses pacientes. As propriedades farmacol&#243;gicas conferidas pela via de administra&#231;&#227;o incluem um in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pido e poucos efeitos adversos sist&#234;micos. Por&#233;m, para melhor efetividade das drogas, h&#225; a necessidade de t&#233;cnicas espec&#237;ficas de inala&#231;&#227;o e de uso frequente da medica&#231;&#227;o, j&#225; que a meia-vida das drogas tamb&#233;m &#233; reduzida.</p>
        <p>Um estudo publicado recentemente avaliou a pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria de prescri&#231;&#227;o de drogas inalat&#243;rias em 70 pa&#237;ses.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>)</sup> Dos 854 m&#233;dicos intensivistas avaliados, 99% prescreviam aeross&#243;is para pacientes em VM, incluindo VNI, sendo 43% exclusivamente por nebuliza&#231;&#227;o. Durante a nebuliza&#231;&#227;o, os par&#226;metros do respirador n&#227;o foram alterados em 77% dos casos, e 87% dos m&#233;dicos consideraram a nebuliza&#231;&#227;o ultrass&#244;nica superior &#224; nebuliza&#231;&#227;o por ar comprimido. Esse estudo evidencia a heterogeneidade na prescri&#231;&#227;o de drogas inalat&#243;rias, demonstrando a pobre aplica&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento cient&#237;fico atual.</p>
        <p>Apesar dos diversos estudos publicados na literatura, pouco se conhece sobre a efic&#225;cia dos broncodilatadores rotineiramente prescritos para pacientes em VM, bem como a sua distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Um desafio ainda maior &#233; a administra&#231;&#227;o de drogas inalat&#243;rias em pacientes com necessidade de VNI.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>TERAPIA INALAT&#211;RIA EM VM</title>
        <p>O uso de medica&#231;&#245;es por via inalat&#243;ria tem como vantagem a possibilidade do tratamento pulmonar seletivo, disponibilizando uma concentra&#231;&#227;o elevada da medica&#231;&#227;o nas vias a&#233;reas, permitindo um in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pido, com poucos efeitos adversos sist&#234;micos. Acredita-se que as drogas administradas durante a VM t&#234;m benef&#237;cio menor do que nos pacientes em ventila&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea. Em um estudo antigo, apenas 2,9% da dose administrada alcan&#231;ava a via a&#233;rea distal, comparado com 11,9% quando a administra&#231;&#227;o ocorria sem via a&#233;rea artificial,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>)</sup> o que pode ser justificado por uma perda substancial da droga pelo fluxo turbilhonado causado pela presen&#231;a da pr&#243;tese respirat&#243;ria. Entretanto, alguns cuidados a serem observados no momento da administra&#231;&#227;o da droga podem melhorar a distribui&#231;&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>)</sup> conforme demonstrado no <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Quadro 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Quadro 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Estrat&#233;gias para melhorar a distribui&#231;&#227;o da droga inalat&#243;ria durante a ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>psi: pound-force per square inch. aPacientes com doen&#231;as obstrutivas podem apresentar auto-PEEP (hiperinsufla&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica) com volume corrente &gt; 500 ml. Nesses casos, sugere-se a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da mec&#226;nica respirat&#243;ria, com limite de volume corrente para evitar a ocorr&#234;ncia de barotrauma.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Quanto aos dispositivos para a administra&#231;&#227;o da droga, inicialmente se acreditava que o uso de inaladores pressurizados (IPs) proporcionaria uma melhor distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar do que a nebuliza&#231;&#227;o convencional.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>)</sup> Entretanto, em condi&#231;&#245;es adequadas de administra&#231;&#227;o, os resultados s&#227;o similares.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>)</sup> Em geral, a terapia por IPs tem sido considerada mais econ&#244;mica, com poss&#237;vel menor risco de pneumonia nosocomial. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>)</sup> Em estudos cl&#237;nicos, a administra&#231;&#227;o por nebuliza&#231;&#227;o ou IP produz efeitos similares na fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, com altera&#231;&#245;es equivalentes no VEF<sub>1</sub>.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>A via inalat&#243;ria permite a administra&#231;&#227;o de broncodilatadores, corticoides, antibi&#243;ticos, prostaglandinas, &#243;xido n&#237;trico, drogas anticoagulantes e heliox. Entretanto, &#233; para o uso dos broncodilatadores que a via inalat&#243;ria &#233; mais utilizada, podendo melhorar os par&#226;metros ventilat&#243;rios e a sincronia do paciente com o respirador quando h&#225; constri&#231;&#227;o da via a&#233;rea. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>)</sup> Os broncodilatadores relaxam a musculatura lisa da via a&#233;rea, revertendo a obstru&#231;&#227;o e prevenindo a broncoconstri&#231;&#227;o.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> Pacientes dependentes de VM, portadores de DPOC ou asma, recebem rotineiramente broncodilatadores inalat&#243;rios. </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>AGENTES FARMACOL&#211;GICOS</title>
        <p>Os agonistas beta-adren&#233;rgicos e as drogas anticolin&#233;rgicas s&#227;o os broncodilatadores inalat&#243;rios mais usados em UTIs.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>)</sup> Os agentes beta-adren&#233;rgicos tamb&#233;m podem ser administrados por via intravenosa, subcut&#226;nea ou oral; por&#233;m, a via inalat&#243;ria &#233; preferida pela disponibilidade pulmonar direta, necessidade de dose menor, in&#237;cio r&#225;pido de a&#231;&#227;o e menor absor&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, reduzindo efeitos adversos.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>)</sup> Um estudo avaliou o tratamento de pacientes asm&#225;ticos na sala de emerg&#234;ncia e demonstrou n&#227;o haver evid&#234;ncias para o uso de &#223;<sub>2</sub>-agonistas por via endovenosa, mesmo em pacientes refrat&#225;rios &#224; mesma medica&#231;&#227;o inalat&#243;ria. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>)</sup> No <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Quadro 2</xref> est&#227;o os principais broncodilatadores inalat&#243;rios usados em UTIs, com doses e caracter&#237;sticas farmacol&#243;gicas, tais como tempo de in&#237;cio, pico de a&#231;&#227;o e dura&#231;&#227;o da a&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Quadro 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Doses e dura&#231;&#227;o de a&#231;&#227;o dos principais broncodilatadores administrados em pacientes em ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>USO CL&#205;NICO DOS BRONCODILATADORES</title>
        <p>O uso de &#223;<sub>2</sub>-agonistas de longa dura&#231;&#227;o e corticoides inalat&#243;rios em pacientes com DPOC tem como objetivos o al&#237;vio dos sintomas, a melhora da qualidade de vida e da fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, assim como a preven&#231;&#227;o da descompensa&#231;&#227;o. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>)</sup> Pacientes com exacerba&#231;&#227;o de DPOC ou de asma grave necessitam administra&#231;&#227;o urgente de drogas broncodilatadoras. A droga de primeira escolha &#233; o &#223;<sub>2</sub>-agonista de curta dura&#231;&#227;o (por exemplo, salbutamol), por ter in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pido e melhor efeito broncodilatador, podendo ser repetido em curtos intervalos de tempo na crise de broncoespasmo.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> A necessidade de altas doses em pacientes muito graves estimulou o estudo do uso de nebuliza&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua em pacientes selecionados. Entretanto, os resultados s&#227;o conflitantes, sem evid&#234;ncia comprovada de benef&#237;cio com essa estrat&#233;gia.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>Em geral, a gravidade da descompensa&#231;&#227;o da asma ou da DPOC pode ser mais bem avaliada pela gravidade da crise e pela resposta ao broncodilatador do que pela fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar pr&#233;via.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>FATORES QUE INFLUENCIAM A OFERTA DAS DROGAS INALAT&#211;RIAS DURANTE A VM</title>
        <p>Em pacientes em VM, as drogas broncodilatadoras podem ser ofertadas atrav&#233;s de nebulizadores que usam ar comprimido, nebulizadores ultrass&#244;nicos ou IPs. Quando se utilizam nebulizadores de ar comprimido, a compress&#227;o do g&#225;s cria part&#237;culas de aerossol que s&#227;o ofertadas com o volume de ar corrente. Essa t&#233;cnica, necessariamente, aumenta o volume de ar corrente ofertado ao paciente em cada ciclo inspirat&#243;rio. J&#225; os nebulizadores ultrass&#244;nicos, dispon&#237;veis em alguns respiradores, aerolizam o l&#237;quido atrav&#233;s de vibra&#231;&#245;es de alta frequ&#234;ncia e n&#227;o aumentam o volume de ar corrente do paciente durante a inspira&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>At&#233; o presente momento, n&#227;o foi demonstrada uma diferen&#231;a cl&#237;nica entre o uso de um ou de outro tipo de nebulizador.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> Os nebulizadores convencionais t&#234;m como potenciais desvantagens a necessidade de fonte de fluxo externa ao respirador, necessidade de instala&#231;&#227;o do equipamento e de rigorosa higieniza&#231;&#227;o. J&#225; os nebulizadores ultrass&#244;nicos podem proporcionar uma maior taxa de nebuliza&#231;&#227;o em menor tempo; por&#233;m, t&#234;m disponibilidade restrita pelo maior custo.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>Os resultados dos estudos s&#227;o tamb&#233;m inconsistentes sobre as diferen&#231;as cl&#237;nicas entre uso de nebuliza&#231;&#227;o ou de IP. A efici&#234;ncia da droga administrada por IP depende especialmente da adapta&#231;&#227;o do tubo ao circuito do respirador. Para a administra&#231;&#227;o de broncodilatadores por esse dispositivo, &#233; fundamental a presen&#231;a de espa&#231;ador, que pode aumentar de quatro a seis vezes a deposi&#231;&#227;o do aerossol nas vias a&#233;reas.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>)</sup> Uma variedade de modelos de espa&#231;adores est&#225; dispon&#237;vel. Atualmente, acredita-se que o uso de IP com espa&#231;ador &#233; t&#227;o eficaz quanto o uso de nebuliza&#231;&#227;o, sendo mais pr&#225;tico, exigindo menos tempo para administra&#231;&#227;o e sem a necessidade de desconex&#227;o do circuito ventilat&#243;rio a cada dose do tratamento.</p>
        <p>Muitos outros fatores influenciam a deposi&#231;&#227;o do aerossol nas vias a&#233;reas inferiores, como demonstrado no <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Quadro 3</xref>. Entre eles est&#227;o as propriedades relacionadas &#224;s drogas, incluindo propriedades f&#237;sicas e qu&#237;micas, as caracter&#237;sticas dos geradores de aerossol, a posi&#231;&#227;o do gerador em rela&#231;&#227;o ao circuito do respirador, os par&#226;metros e modos ventilat&#243;rios, a umidifica&#231;&#227;o e o aquecimento do ar inspirado, as caracter&#237;sticas do tubo endotraqueal e a anatomia das vias a&#233;reas, bem como a presen&#231;a de secre&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Quadro 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fatores que influenciam a deposi&#231;&#227;o do aerossol nas vias a&#233;reas durante a ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Adaptado de Dhand.(15)</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Mesmo em pacientes dependentes de VM, prefere-se a posi&#231;&#227;o com a cabeceira elevada para a administra&#231;&#227;o do broncodilatador, uma vez que a posi&#231;&#227;o sentada melhora a oferta da medica&#231;&#227;o.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>)</sup> O aquecimento e a umidifica&#231;&#227;o do ar inspirado s&#227;o elementos necess&#225;rios durante o suporte ventilat&#243;rio pela redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de pneumonia associada &#224; VM. Entretanto, &#233; importante lembrar que essas propriedades aumentam o impacto das part&#237;culas no circuito ventilat&#243;rio, reduzindo em at&#233; 40% a deposi&#231;&#227;o do aerossol nas vias a&#233;reas mais distais.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>O gerador de part&#237;culas inaladas deve ficar posicionado a uma dist&#226;ncia de 20 a 30 cm do tubo endotraqueal, entre o tubo e o Y do circuito,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>)</sup> conforme a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>. Isso porque a via inspirat&#243;ria do circuito respirat&#243;rio funciona como um reservat&#243;rio do aerossol durante a fase expirat&#243;ria.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>)</sup> A sincroniza&#231;&#227;o da gera&#231;&#227;o do aerossol com o in&#237;cio do fluxo inspirat&#243;rio aumenta a taxa de deposi&#231;&#227;o pulmonar em at&#233; 30%, quando comparada com a libera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o sincronizada. Um atraso de 1 a 1,5 segundos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ciclo inspirat&#243;rio pode reduzir a efic&#225;cia da distribui&#231;&#227;o da droga.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>O nebulizador deve estar a uma dist&#226;ncia de 20-30 cm do tubo endotraqueal, entre o tubo e o Y do circuito.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1806-3756-jbpneu-41-05-0467-m9Lgn-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Os par&#226;metros respirat&#243;rios tamb&#233;m s&#227;o importantes na oferta da medica&#231;&#227;o inalada. Um volume de ar corrente m&#237;nimo de 500 ml,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>)</sup> al&#233;m de tempo inspirat&#243;rio maior e de fluxo inspirat&#243;rio baixo (30 a 50 l/min) s&#227;o recomendados para otimizar a distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar da droga. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref><sup>)</sup> Deve-se atentar para os efeitos adversos do volume corrente elevado (&gt; 500 ml) em pacientes com doen&#231;a obstrutiva, podendo agravar a hiperinsufla&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica ou provocar barotrauma. De acordo com dados de um estudo in vitro, a distribui&#231;&#227;o da droga nebulizada tamb&#233;m pode variar conforme o modo ventilat&#243;rio: press&#227;o ou volume controlado.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>)</sup> Entretanto, n&#227;o existe um estudo cl&#237;nico que comprove benef&#237;cios de algum modo ventilat&#243;rio espec&#237;fico na administra&#231;&#227;o de drogas inalat&#243;rias.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>Fluxos altos e turbulentos podem levar a um maior impacto das part&#237;culas, levando a maior deposi&#231;&#227;o dessas nas vias a&#233;reas proximais.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup> A densidade do g&#225;s inalado tamb&#233;m influencia a distribui&#231;&#227;o da droga. A inala&#231;&#227;o de g&#225;s menos denso, como a mistura h&#233;lio-oxig&#234;nio 70/30, torna o fluxo menos turbulento e mais linear, facilitando a distribui&#231;&#227;o da droga inalat&#243;ria.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>RESPOSTA AO BRONCODILATADOR NA VM</title>
        <p>Como n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel a avalia&#231;&#227;o do VEF<sub>1</sub> ou da CVF em pacientes submetidos &#224; VM, a resposta ao tratamento &#233; baseada em par&#226;metros de mec&#226;nica respirat&#243;ria. O objetivo do tratamento deve incluir a redu&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia inspirat&#243;ria das vias a&#233;reas, o que pode ser confirmado pela redu&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o de pico ou na diferen&#231;a entre a press&#227;o de pico e a de plat&#244; durante uma pausa inspirat&#243;ria. Uma redu&#231;&#227;o de mais de 10% na varia&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia indica resposta significativa ao broncodilatador.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup> &#201; importante avaliar a curva de fluxo antes e depois da administra&#231;&#227;o dos broncodilatadores. Ainda na avalia&#231;&#227;o da curva de fluxo, pode-se tamb&#233;m observar uma redu&#231;&#227;o da PEEP intr&#237;nseca, ou seja, da auto-PEEP.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>TERAPIA BRONCODILATADORA DURANTE VNI</title>
        <p>Diante da evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica para o uso de VNI em pacientes com DPOC ou asma, torna-se obrigat&#243;rio o estudo da administra&#231;&#227;o de broncodilatadores durante a VNI. Atualmente, na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria, para o uso de broncodilatadores em pacientes em VNI, a m&#225;scara &#233; removida e a medica&#231;&#227;o &#233; inalada como habitualmente (nebuliza&#231;&#227;o ou IP) ou o dispositivo &#233; adaptado &#224; m&#225;scara ou ao circuito do respirador. At&#233; o presente momento, n&#227;o h&#225; disponibilidade de sistemas espec&#237;ficos para o uso de terapia inalat&#243;ria em VNI.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>Assim como na VM invasiva, o efeito da droga inalada vai depender das propriedades farmacol&#243;gicas e da distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar da mesma. Para uma melhor deposi&#231;&#227;o, as part&#237;culas de aerossol devem ser pequenas o suficiente para penetrar atrav&#233;s das vias a&#233;reas superiores, mas grandes o suficiente para evitar serem eliminadas pelo fluxo expirat&#243;rio. Dispositivos que produzem aeross&#243;is com massa menor de 2 &#181;m s&#227;o mais eficientes para a deposi&#231;&#227;o pulmonar durante a VNI.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>Em pacientes dependentes de VNI, na administra&#231;&#227;o de broncodilatadores por IP, o uso de espa&#231;ador aumenta a oferta da droga aos pulm&#245;es, aumentando a sua efic&#225;cia de quatro a seis vezes, quando comparado com a aplica&#231;&#227;o sem o espa&#231;ador.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup> Em um estudo, Nava et al.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>)</sup> avaliaram a aplica&#231;&#227;o de broncodilatador por IP em pacientes com DPOC clinicamente est&#225;veis, com e sem VNI. Foi demonstrado um aumento significativo do VEF<sub>1</sub> com a administra&#231;&#227;o de salbutamol, independente do modo de aplica&#231;&#227;o.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>A deposi&#231;&#227;o do aerossol na m&#225;scara e nas cavidades nasais reduz significativamente a distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar da droga,<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>)</sup> podendo reduzir a sua efic&#225;cia. Entretanto, o uso da m&#225;scara &#233; necess&#225;rio para o suporte ventilat&#243;rio em alguns pacientes com broncoespasmo, podendo evitar a intuba&#231;&#227;o.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>)</sup> Para uma melhor efic&#225;cia, a m&#225;scara deve estar bem fixada. A presen&#231;a de escape pode reduzir significativamente a oferta da medica&#231;&#227;o para o paciente.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>Em respiradores exclusivos de VNI (circuitos com apenas uma traqueia), a posi&#231;&#227;o da v&#225;lvula de exala&#231;&#227;o pode influenciar a efici&#234;ncia da nebuliza&#231;&#227;o, fato que n&#227;o &#233; observado na administra&#231;&#227;o por IP.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup> Branconnier &amp; Hess<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>)</sup> estudaram, em um modelo experimental, a oferta de salbutamol por nebuliza&#231;&#227;o e por IP, testados em modelos com exala&#231;&#227;o na m&#225;scara ou no circuito. Naquele estudo, a nebuliza&#231;&#227;o foi mais eficaz quando a exala&#231;&#227;o foi posicionada no circuito de traqueia do que na m&#225;scara.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>)</sup> Calvert et al.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref><sup>)</sup> relataram que a nebuliza&#231;&#227;o entre a exala&#231;&#227;o e o respirador de VNI tem melhor efici&#234;ncia do que a colocada entre a exala&#231;&#227;o e a m&#225;scara. Em contraste, Abdelrahim et al.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>)</sup> encontraram uma maior deposi&#231;&#227;o de aerossol com a nebuliza&#231;&#227;o posicionada entre a exala&#231;&#227;o e a m&#225;scara. Os resultados divergentes confirmam a controv&#233;rsia sobre o assunto e demonstram a necessidade de mais estudos.</p>
        <p>A orienta&#231;&#227;o do nebulizador em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; m&#225;scara tamb&#233;m &#233; importante para a deposi&#231;&#227;o do aerossol, sendo que os nebulizadores frontais apresentam melhor distribui&#231;&#227;o da droga do que aqueles localizados lateralmente &#224; m&#225;scara.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>)</sup> Um estudo in vitro que avaliou os par&#226;metros ventilat&#243;rios e a posi&#231;&#227;o do nebulizador na oferta do f&#225;rmaco demonstrou uma varia&#231;&#227;o importante na oferta do salbutamol dependendo do local do nebulizador no circuito, das press&#245;es inspirat&#243;rias e expirat&#243;rias e da frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria. A oferta foi melhor (alcan&#231;ando 25% da dose) quando o nebulizador foi colocado mais pr&#243;ximo ao paciente (entre a m&#225;scara e o circuito), quando a press&#227;o inspirat&#243;ria foi maior (20 cmH<sub>2</sub>O) e quando a press&#227;o expirat&#243;ria foi menor (5 cmH<sub>2</sub>O).<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
        <p>A extens&#227;o da doen&#231;a pulmonar e a habilidade do paciente de tolerar a m&#225;scara tamb&#233;m s&#227;o fatores decisivos no sucesso do tratamento com VNI combinado com terapia inalat&#243;ria. A sincroniza&#231;&#227;o da ventila&#231;&#227;o do paciente com o respirador melhora a distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar do aerossol. Um atraso de 1 a 1,5 segundos na administra&#231;&#227;o da droga em rela&#231;&#227;o ao in&#237;cio da inspira&#231;&#227;o pode reduzir significativamente a sua efici&#234;ncia.<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>)</sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>CONSIDERA&#199;&#213;ES FINAIS</title>
        <p>Muitos pacientes com DPOC necessitam suporte ventilat&#243;rio com VM invasiva ou VNI. A oferta das drogas inalat&#243;rias nesse contexto &#233; complexa. M&#250;ltiplos s&#227;o os fatores que influenciam a efic&#225;cia dos broncodilatadores quando administrados em VM. Para uma melhor efetividade da droga, recomenda-se a prescri&#231;&#227;o da dose adequada para a via inalat&#243;ria, na apresenta&#231;&#227;o conforme sua disponibilidade. &#201; importante atentar para as medidas que podem melhorar a efic&#225;cia das medica&#231;&#245;es, como o uso de espa&#231;ador, a sincronia do paciente, o intervalo adequado entre as doses e o ajuste dos par&#226;metros ventilat&#243;rios durante a administra&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Apesar das recomenda&#231;&#245;es definidas para a administra&#231;&#227;o de drogas inalat&#243;rias, poucas dessas interven&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o implementadas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria. O conhecimento sobre os aspectos que influenciam a distribui&#231;&#227;o pulmonar das drogas &#233; fundamental para otimizar o tratamento desses pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
          <p>Trabalho realizado na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva Adulto do Hospital Moinhos de Vento e no Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Pneumol&#243;gicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Porto Alegre (RS) Brasil.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn2">
          <p>Apoio financeiro: Nenhum.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
